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Samkhya, also Sankhya, (Sanskrit: सांख्य, IAST: sāṃkhya - 'enumeration') is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Sankhya school, although no historical verification is possible. It is regarded as the oldest of the philosophical systems in India.

Sankhya was one of the six orthodox systems (astika, those systems that recognize vedic authority) of Hindu philosophy. The major text of this theistic school is the extant Sankhya Karika, written by Ishvara Krishna, circa 200 AD. There are no purely Samkhya schools existing today in Hinduism, but its influence is felt in the Yoga and Vedanta schools. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: Purusha (mind) and Prakriti (matter).^[1][2] It is a strongly dualist^[3] and enumerationist philosophy. The Purusha is the centre of consciousness, whereas the Prakriti is the source of all material existence.

Contents 1 Literature 2 Epistemology 3 Metaphysics 3.1 Ontology 3.2 Nature of Duality 3.3 Theory of Existence 3.4 Moksha 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

Literature

Tradition ascribes the foundation of this school to the sage Kapila, but there is no evidence to prove the texts attributed to him, the Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra and the Tattvasamāsa were actually (?) composed by him. The earliest extant text of this school is Sāṁkhya Kārikā of Iśvarakṛṣṇa (3rd century AD). Iśvarakṛṣṇa in his Kārikā described himself as being in the succession of the disciples from Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha. Gauḍapāda wrote a commentary on this Kārikā. The next important work is Vācaspati’s Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī (9th century AD). Nārāyaṇa’s treatise Sāṁkhyacandrikā is based on the Kārikā. The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra is assigned to the 14th century as Guṇaratna (14th century) did not refer this text but referred the Kārikā. This text consists 6 chapters and 526 sūtras. The most important commentary on the Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra is Vijñānabhikṣu’s Sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya (16th century). Anirruddha’s Kāpilasāṁkhyapravacanasūtravṛtti (15th century) and Mahādeva’s Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtravṛttisāra (c. 1600) and Nāgeśa’s Laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti are the other important commentaries on this text.^[4]

Epistemology

According to the Samkhya school, all knowledge is possible through three pramanas (means of valid knowledge)^[5] -

1. Pratyaksha or Drishtam - direct sense perception,
2. Anumana - logical inference and
3. Sabda or Aptavacana - verbal testimony.

Samkhya cites out two types of perceptions, a. Indeterminate (nirvikalpa) perceptions and b. determinate (savikalpa) perceptions.

Indeterminate perceptions are merely impressions without understanding or knowledge. They reveal no knowledge of the form or the name of the object. There is only external awareness about an object. There is cognition of the object, but no discriminative recognition.

For example, a baby’s initial experience is full of impression. There is a lot of data from sensory perception, but there is little or no understanding of the inputs. Hence they can neither be differentiated nor be labeled. Most of them are indeterminate perceptions.

Determinate perceptions are the mature state of perceptions which have been processed and differentiated appropriately. Once the sensations have been processed, categorized and interpreted properly, they become determinate perceptions. They can lead to identification and also generate knowledge.

Metaphysics

Ontology

Broadly, the Samkhya system classifies all objects as falling into one of the two categories: Purusha and Prakriti. Metaphysically, Samkhya maintains a radical duality between spirit/consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakrti).

• Purusha

Purusha is the Transcendental Self or Pure Consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable, above any experience and beyond any words or explanation. It remains pure, “nonattributive consciousness ”. Purusha is neither produced nor does it produce.

• Prakriti

Prakriti is matter. Matter is inert, temporary, and unconscious. It is composed of three qualities (trigunas) of the self. They are:

• sattva - mental makeup, symbolized by the color white
• rajas - life energy in feelings, not mentality, passionate attachments, symbolized by the color red
• tamas - physical, gross stuff (bones, blood, skin)

All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of Prakrti, or primal Nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being is a Purusha, and is limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. Samsaara or bondage arises when the Purusha does not have the discriminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the physical body - which is actually an evolute of Prakriti. The spirit is liberated when the discriminate knowledge of the difference between conscious Purusha and unconscious Prakriti is realized.

• Ishwara (Creationist God)

The original school of Samkhya was founded by Sage Kapila. There was no philosophical place for a creationist God in this system. The Samkhyan's argue that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.^[6] The school also argues that an unchanging Ishvara as the cause cannot be the source of a changing world as the effect.

Later on followers of Samkhya adopted theism and included Ishvara within the system. The concept of Ishvara was incorporated into the Sankhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the theistic Yoga system of philosophy.

Nature of Duality

According to Samkhya, the efficient cause of the world is Purusha and the material cause is Prakriti. Here Purusha stands for the ‘Supreme Self’ and Prakriti stands for ‘Matter’. Purusha (Self) is the first principle of Samkhya. Prakriti is the second, the material principle of Samkhya.

Theory of Existence

The Samkhya system is based on Satkaryavada. According to Satkaryavada, the effect pre-exists in the cause. Cause and effect are seen as different temporal aspects of the same thing - the effect lies latent in the cause which in turn seeds the next effect.

More specifically, Samkhya system follows the Prakriti-Parinama Vada. Parinama denotes that the effect is a real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakriti or more precisely Mula-Prakriti (Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning with primordial matter. In evolution, Prakriti is transformed and differentiated into multiplicity of objects. Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back into Prakriti, which now remains as the undifferentiated, primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution and dissolution follow each other.

Sankhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because Prakriti is always in a state of tension among its constituent strands -

• Sattva - a template of balance or equilibrium;

• Rajas - a template of expansion or activity;

• Tamas - a template of inertia or resistance to action.

All macrocosmic and microcosmic creation uses these templates. The twenty four principles that evolve are -

• Prakriti - The most subtle potentiality that is behind whatever is created in the physical universe, also called "primordial Matter". It is also a state of equilibrium amongst the Three Gunas.

• Mahat - first product of evolution from Prakriti, pure potentiality. Mahat is also considered to be the principle responsible for the rise of buddhi or intelligence in living beings.

• Ahamkara or ego-sense - second product of evolution. It is responsible for the self-sense in living beings. It is also one's identification with the outer world and its content.

• "Panch Tanmatras" are a simultaneous product from Mahat Tattva, along with the Ahamkara. They are the subtle form of Panch Mahabhutas which result from grossification or Panchikaran of the Tanmatras. Each of these Tanmatras are made of all three Gunas.

• Manas or "Antahkaran" evolves from the total sum of the sattva aspect of Panch Tanmatras or the "Ahamkara"

• Panch jnana indriyas or five sense organs - also evolves from the sattva aspect of Ahamkara.

• Pancha karma indriya or five organs of action - The organs of action are hands, legs, vocal apparatus, urino-genital organ and anus. They evolve from the rajas aspect of Ahamkara.

• Pancha mahabhuta or five great substances - ether, air, fire, water and earth. They evolve from the "tamas" aspect of the "Ahamkara". This is the revealed aspect of the physical universe.

The evolution of primal Nature is also considered to be purposeful - Prakrti evolves for the spirit in bondage. The spirit who is always free is only a witness to the evolution, even though due to the absence of discriminate knowledge, he misidentifies himself with it.^{[citation needed]}

The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal Nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Sankhya is called Satkaarya-vaada (theory of existent causes), and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness - all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.

The evolution of matter occurs when the relative strengths of the attributes change. The evolution ceases when the spirit realizes that it is distinct from primal Nature and thus cannot evolve. This destroys the purpose of evolution, thus stopping Prakrti from evolving for Purusha.

Samkhyan cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The evolution of forms at the basis of Samkhya is quite remarkable. The strands of Samkhyan thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.

Moksha

Like other major systems of Indian philosophy, Samkhya regards ignorance as the root cause of bondage and suffering (Samsara.) According to Samkhya, the Purusha is eternal, pure consciousness. Due to ignorance, it identifies itself with the physical body and its constituents - Manas, ahamkara and Mahat, which are products of Prakriti. Once it becomes free of this false identification and the material bonds, Moksha ensues.

Non-theistic Samkhya teaches that moksha is attained by one's own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices. Theistic Samkhya states that by devotion and service one attains the clarity of mind to have this discrimination with the grace of God. Views of what happens to the soul after liberation will vary tremendously, as the Samkhya view is used by many different Hindu sects and is rarely practiced alone.

See also

• Hinduism
• Yoga
• Darshanas
• Hindu philosophy
• Indian philosophy
• Linga sarira
• Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara

Notes

References

• Eliade, Mircea (1969). Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Bollingen Series LVI. New York, New York: Bollingen Foundation, Inc.. ISBN 0-691-01764-6.  Second Edition. Translated from the French by Willard R. Trask.
• Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1. 
• Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, C. A. (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.  Princeton paperback 12th printing, 1989.
• Sen Gupta, Anima. The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi, 1986.
• A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (1972-77) (multiple volumes)

Further reading

• Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Eighth Reprint Edition, Calcutta: University of Calcutta. 

• Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7661-4296-5.  Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.

• Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. 

• R.A. Ramaswami Shastri, A Short History Of The Purva Mimamsa Shastra, Annamalai University Sanskrit Series No. 3 (1936).

• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India. New York, New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1.  Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell.

• A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is (1968)

• Kambhampati, Parvathi Kumar (1993). Sankya - The Sacred Doctrine, First Edition, Visakhapatnam: Dhanishta. ISBN 8-190-03323-9. .

External links

• Samkhya entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Sankhya philosophy (archive)
• Comparison between Indian and Greek cosmology
• Maharshi Vyasa and Sankhya Shastra
• PDF file of Ishwarkrishna's sankhyakarikaa - 200BC (in Sanskrit) available for research purposes only
• Sankya - The Sacred Doctrine

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